Context:

The Supreme Court has ordered a complete ban on manual scavenging and hazardous cleaning of sewers and septic tanks in six major metropolitan cities: Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, Bengaluru, and Hyderabad.

What is Manual Scavenging?

Manual scavenging refers to the manual removal of human excreta from dry latrines, open drains, sewers, and septic tanks. It is a dehumanizing practice, predominantly carried out by Dalits and other marginalized communities.

Status in India:

• 443 deaths due to manual scavenging reported between 2018-2023 (Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment).
• In Delhi, 94 deaths were recorded in the past 15 years, with only one conviction.
• As of 2024, 97% of manual scavengers belong to Scheduled Castes (SCs):
  
  • 42,594 SCs
  • 421 Scheduled Tribes (STs)
  • 431 Other Backward Classes (OBCs)

Judicial Interventions:

• Safai Karamchari Andolan v. Union of India (2014): The Supreme Court mandated ₹10 lakh compensation for families of workers who died cleaning sewers since 1993.
• The court has emphasized that manual scavenging violates:
  
  • Article 17 (Abolition of Untouchability)
  • Article 21 (Right to Life and Dignity)

Health Hazards:

• Exposure to toxic gases like hydrogen sulfide leads to chronic illnesses and premature deaths.
• Increased risk of cholera, typhoid, hepatitis, and respiratory infections due to direct contact with human waste.

Why Manual Scavenging Persists?

1. Weak Enforcement:

• Despite legal bans, municipalities and contractors bypass regulations, hiring workers on contractual or informal bases.

2. Caste Discrimination:

• Deeply rooted in caste hierarchy, trapping Dalits in this occupation due to social stigma and lack of alternatives.

3. Poor Sewage Infrastructure:

• Most Indian cities lack modern sewage systems, making manual cleaning unavoidable in congested areas.

4. Economic Dependence:

• Many manual scavengers are unskilled and illiterate, with limited access to alternative livelihoods.

5. Lack of Awareness:

• Many workers do not know their legal rights or government schemes designed for their welfare.

Challenges in Eradicating Manual Scavenging:

• Health Risks: Chronic illnesses due to direct contact with human waste.
• Social Discrimination: Workers face exclusion and stigma, limiting education and employment opportunities.
• Legal Loopholes: Poor enforcement of laws allows the practice to continue unchecked.
• Technological Gaps: Limited mechanization of sewer cleaning due to high costs.
• Data Inaccuracy: Underreporting of cases hinders policy implementation.

Laws and Government Initiatives:

1. Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and Their Rehabilitation (PEMSR) Act, 2013

• Criminalizes the employment of manual scavengers.
• Mandates mechanization of sewer cleaning.

2. Supreme Court Directives:

• In 2020, the court ordered stricter implementation of mechanized sewer cleaning.

3. Constitutional Provisions:

• Article 17 – Abolishes untouchability.
• Article 21 – Guarantees Right to Life and Dignity.
• Article 23 – Prohibits forced labor.
• Article 42 – Mandates humane working conditions for all workers.

4. Government Schemes:

• NAMASTE Scheme (2023):
  
  • Focuses on mechanizing sewer cleaning.
  • Provides skill training and alternative employment for sanitation workers.
• Swachh Bharat Abhiyan:
  
  • Replaces dry latrines with modern sanitation facilities.
  • Promotes mechanized cleaning equipment.
• Self-Employment Scheme for Rehabilitation of Manual Scavengers (SRMS):
  
  • Provides ₹40,000 financial assistance and skill training.

Way Forward:

1. Strict Enforcement: Implement the 2013 Act with penalties for violations.
2. Rapid Mechanization: Invest in robots and modern equipment to eliminate human involvement.
3. Skill Development: Provide vocational training and alternative job opportunities.
4. Awareness Campaigns: Educate manual scavengers about their rights and government support.
5. Community Engagement: Civil society and local communities must work to end caste-based discrimination.

Conclusion:

Manual scavenging is a human rights violation that continues due to weak enforcement, caste discrimination, and poor infrastructure. Despite legal bans, its persistence highlights the failure of policy implementation. The Supreme Court’s intervention is a crucial step toward ensuring dignity and equality for all, but urgent action and technological advancement are necessary to completely eradicate this inhumane practice.

Context

• The Union Cabinet has approved the National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM) with an expenditure of ₹16,300 crore and an additional ₹18,000 crore investment from PSUs and the private sector.
• It was announced in the Union Budget 2024-25 under the Ministry of Mines.

What is the National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM)?

• The NCMM is a strategic initiative aimed at strengthening India’s supply chain for critical minerals through:
  
  • Domestic exploration and mining
  • Overseas asset acquisition
  • Technological innovation
• These minerals are vital for renewable energy, electronics, semiconductors, and defense manufacturing, helping reduce import dependency and foster industrial growth.

Objectives of NCMM

• Accelerate Domestic Exploration & Mining: Expand mineral exploration within India, including offshore reserves.
• Regulatory Reforms: Fast-track mining approvals for seamless extraction and processing.
• Strategic Global Partnerships: Facilitate overseas acquisition of mineral assets by PSUs and private companies.
• Infrastructure Development: Establish mineral processing parks and promote recycling of critical minerals.
• Encourage R&D & Innovation: Support research in advanced mineral processing technologies and set up Centers of Excellence.

Key Features of NCMM

• Comprehensive Value Chain Development: Covers exploration, mining, beneficiation, processing, and recycling of critical minerals.
• Financial Incentives: Offers monetary support for mineral exploration and sustainable recovery.
• Stockpile Strategy: Develops a national reserve of critical minerals for long-term security.
• Industry Collaboration: Encourages PSUs and private firms to invest in global mining projects.
• Legislative Backing: Strengthened by the 2023 amendments to the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957.

What are Critical Minerals?

• Definition:
  
  • Critical minerals are essential for economic development and national security.
  • Their limited availability and concentrated extraction in specific geographical locations make supply chains vulnerable.
• Applications:
  
  • Clean Energy: Used in solar panels, wind turbines, and EV batteries.
  • Advanced Manufacturing: Critical for defense, electronics, and telecommunications.
  • Medical Sector: Platinum Group Metals (PGMs) are used in cancer treatments, medical devices, and dental materials.

Critical Minerals Covered Under NCMM

Government Initiatives to Secure Critical Mineral Supplies

• Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957:
  
  • Amended in 2023 to increase exploration and mining of critical minerals.
• Exploration Projects by Geological Survey of India (GSI):
  
  • 368 exploration projects undertaken in the last three years.
  • 195 projects ongoing in FY 2024-25, with 227 projects planned for FY 2025-26.
• KABIL (Khanij Bidesh India Ltd.):
  
  • A joint venture under the Ministry of Mines for securing lithium and other critical minerals abroad.
  • Acquired 15,703 hectares in Argentina for lithium exploration.
• Customs Duty Exemptions:
  
  • The Union Budget 2024-25 eliminated customs duties on critical minerals, promoting domestic processing facilities.

Way Forward

• Strengthen Domestic Exploration: Boost India’s self-reliance and reduce import dependency.
• Foster Global Partnerships: Collaborate with Africa, Australia, Argentina, Mongolia for mineral security.
  
  • Tanzania: Access to niobium and graphite
  • Zimbabwe: Focus on lithium
  • Congo & Zambia: Acquisition of copper and cobalt
• Support Clean Energy Transition: Minerals like lithium and cobalt are crucial for India’s net-zero emissions goal by 2070.

Context

• The Union Minister for New and Renewable Energy announced that the PM Surya Ghar scheme has reached a milestone, with 8.5 lakh households (about 8.5%) installing rooftop solar connections.
• The scheme was launched on February 15, 2024, under the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE).

What is PM Surya Ghar: Muft Bijli Yojana?

• It is a centrally sponsored scheme aimed at providing free electricity to households by subsidizing rooftop solar panel installations.
• The scheme aims to:
  
  • Provide up to 300 units of free electricity per month to one crore households.
  • Lower electricity expenses for both households and the government.
  • Increase the share of renewable energy in India’s energy mix.
  • Reduce carbon emissions and promote sustainable development.

Key Features of the Scheme

1. Subsidies & Financial Incentives

• The scheme provides subsidies for rooftop solar systems:
  
  • 60% of the cost for systems up to 2 kW capacity.
  • 40% of the additional cost for systems between 2 kW and 3 kW capacity.
  • Subsidy cap at 3 kW.
• At current benchmark prices, this translates to:
  
  • ₹30,000 for a 1 kW system.
  • ₹60,000 for a 2 kW system.
  • ₹78,000 for a 3 kW system.

2. Financial Outlay

• Total Budget: ₹75,021 crore.
• ₹65,700 crore allocated for Central Financial Assistance (CFA) to residential consumers.
• ₹4,950 crore allocated for incentives to DISCOMs.

3. DISCOM Incentives

• DISCOMs (Distribution Companies) are designated as State Implementation Agencies (SIAs).
• They receive performance-based incentives for exceeding the baseline rooftop solar installation levels.

4. Eligibility Criteria

To avail of the scheme, a household must:
Be an Indian citizen.
Own a house with a suitable rooftop for solar panel installation.
Have a valid electricity connection.
Not have availed any other subsidy for solar panels.

5. Targets for Solar Installation

• March 2025: 10 lakh households.
• October 2025: 20 lakh households.
• March 2027: 1 crore households.

6. Government & Consumer Savings

• Consumer Savings: Households can save up to ₹18,000 annually on electricity bills.
• Government Savings: Expected to save ₹75,000 crore annually in electricity costs.

7. Model Solar Villages

• A Model Solar Village will be developed in each district to promote rooftop solar adoption in rural areas.

Potential Benefits of PM Surya Ghar Scheme

Energy Independence: Enables households to generate their own electricity, reducing dependence on the national grid.
Lower Electricity Costs: Directly benefits middle- and lower-income households.
Peak Load Reduction: Reduces electricity demand during peak hours, easing the burden on DISCOMs.
Boost to Solar Industry: Drives demand for solar panels, benefiting manufacturers and installers.
Strengthens India’s Energy Security: Supports India’s goal of achieving self-reliance in the energy sector.

Challenges Faced by the Scheme

Slow Installations: Only 8.5 lakh out of 1 crore targeted households have installed solar connections so far.
Infrastructure Issues: Efficient grid integration is required for widespread solar adoption.
Financial Accessibility: Despite subsidies, upfront installation costs remain a barrier.
DISCOM Support: Delays in execution due to DISCOM inefficiencies.
Public Awareness: Wider outreach is needed for both urban and rural adoption.

Future Outlook

• The MNRE aims to cover 12 lakh households in FY 2024-25.
• India plans to add 50 GW of new renewable capacity annually in the coming years.
• The tariff for grid-connected solar power has significantly declined over the past decade, making solar energy more affordable.
• India is moving toward a clean energy transition, with the PM Surya Ghar scheme playing a pivotal role.

Context

• The Government of India has introduced the Mutual Credit Guarantee Scheme for MSMEs (MCGS-MSME) to ease credit constraints and propel growth in the manufacturing sector.
• The scheme was recently approved and is being implemented by the National Credit Guarantee Trustee Company Limited (NCGTC).

About the MSME Sector

• The Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSME) sector is the backbone of the Indian economy, contributing significantly to employment, innovation, and economic growth.
• The manufacturing sector within MSMEs plays a crucial role, providing jobs to 27.3 million workers.
• However, access to finance remains a major challenge, limiting the ability of MSMEs to modernize, expand, and compete effectively.

Key Features of MCGS-MSME

1. Guarantee Coverage

• Provides 60% guarantee coverage to Member Lending Institutions (MLIs) on loans up to ₹100 crore sanctioned to eligible MSMEs for the purchase of plant and machinery.

2. Eligibility

• MSMEs must have a valid Udyam Registration Number.

3. Loan Amount & Usage

• The project cost can exceed ₹100 crore, but at least 75% of the cost must be utilized for acquiring equipment and machinery to support manufacturing capacity expansion.

4. Repayment Terms

• Loans up to ₹50 crore: Maximum 8-year repayment period, including a 2-year principal moratorium.
• Loans above ₹50 crore: Longer repayment and moratorium periods may be considered.

5. Guarantee Fees

• First Year: No guarantee fee.
• Subsequent Three Years: 1.5% per annum of the outstanding loan amount as of March 31st of the previous year.

6. Scheme Duration

• The scheme will be in effect for four years from the date of the issuance of operational guidelines or until cumulative guarantees of ₹7 lakh crore are issued, whichever comes earlier.

7. Participating Lenders

• All Scheduled Commercial Banks (SCBs).
• Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs) registered with NCGTC.

Impact on MSMEs & Manufacturing

Supports the ‘Make in India, Make for the World’ initiative by boosting manufacturing output.
Helps MSMEs scale up by providing easier access to large credit for expansion.
Strengthens India’s position in global supply chains.
Aims to increase the manufacturing sector’s contribution to GDP from 17% to 25%.
Expanded MSMEs will generate more employment opportunities.

Other Key MSME Financial Support Schemes in India

1. Credit Guarantee Fund Trust for MSEs (CGTMSE)

• Offers collateral-free loans up to ₹2 crore.
• Provides up to 85% guarantee coverage to reduce lender risk.

2. Trade Receivables Discounting System (TReDS)

• An online platform that helps MSMEs receive faster payments from large companies.

3. Emergency Credit Line Guarantee Scheme (ECLGS)

• A ₹3 lakh crore relief package introduced during COVID-19.
• 100% government-backed loan guarantee.

4. RBI Measures to Boost MSME Lending

• Priority Sector Lending (PSL): Banks are mandated to allocate a portion of their loans to MSMEs.
• One-Time Loan Restructuring: MSMEs were allowed to restructure loans to prevent defaults.

Other Steps to Ease MSME Credit Access

Raising and Accelerating MSME Performance (RAMP) Program:

• ₹6,000 crore investment over 5 years to boost MSME growth.

Priority Sector Lending (PSL) Norms:

• All bank loans to MSMEs that meet prescribed conditions qualify as priority sector lending, ensuring better credit access.

Context

• The Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST) reactor in China has set a new record by sustaining a plasma state for over 1,000 seconds (17 minutes), marking a significant advancement in fusion research.

Understanding Nuclear Fusion

What is Nuclear Fusion?

• Nuclear fusion is the process where two light atomic nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus, releasing an immense amount of energy—the same process that powers the Sun and other stars.

How Does Nuclear Fusion Work?

1. High Temperature & Plasma Formation:
   
   • Requires temperatures above 100 million degrees Celsius to create a plasma state, where atoms split into charged particles.
2. Magnetic Confinement:
   
   • Plasma is confined using strong magnetic fields to prevent contact with reactor walls.
3. Fusion Reaction:
   
   • Hydrogen isotopes (Deuterium & Tritium) fuse to produce helium and energy in the form of heat.
4. Energy Capture & Conversion:
   
   • Future reactors aim to use this heat to generate steam, driving turbines to produce electricity.

Major Nuclear Fusion Experiments Worldwide

1. China’s EAST Reactor (Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak)

• Achievement: Maintained plasma for 1,000+ seconds, surpassing its 2023 record of 400+ seconds.
• Significance: A critical step toward building a full-scale fusion power plant.
• Location: Institute of Plasma Physics, Anhui Province, China.

2. ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor, France)

• What is ITER?
  
  • The world’s largest fusion experiment, involving 35 nations, including India, the US, China, and the EU.
  • Location: Southern France.
• Key Features:
  500 MW fusion power output planned by 2039.
  Uses Deuterium-Tritium fuel to replicate Sun-like conditions.
  Paves the way for commercial fusion power plants.

Difference Between Nuclear Fusion and Nuclear Fission

Potential & Importance of Nuclear Fusion

Abundant Fuel Sources: Deuterium (from seawater) and Tritium (from lithium) are widely available and long-lasting.
High Energy Output: Produces 4 times more energy per kilogram of fuel than fission and nearly 4 million times more energy than burning oil/coal.
Safe & Sustainable: No risk of runaway reactions or meltdowns.
Environmental Benefits: No carbon dioxide or greenhouse gas emissions, making it a low-carbon energy source.

Challenges in Achieving Nuclear Fusion

1. Extreme Conditions Required

• On Earth, fusion requires temperatures exceeding 100 million°C and intense pressure to sustain the reaction.

2. Plasma Confinement & Stability

• Keeping plasma stable and contained long enough for a net power gain is a major challenge.
• Current experiments need better plasma confinement and stability.

3. Technological & Financial Barriers

• Fusion reactors need complex and expensive technology.
• Securing funding and overcoming regulatory hurdles remain challenges.

Latest Developments in China

• China is building a large laser-ignited fusion research center, which may also have military applications for thermonuclear weapons.
• China’s nuclear arsenal has grown from 410 warheads (January 2023) to 500 (January 2024), with projections suggesting it may match the US and Russia in intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) by the end of the decade.

Implications of China’s Nuclear Fusion Breakthrough

Nuclear Weapons:

• Could improve China’s nuclear weapons design without the need for traditional nuclear tests, allowing compliance with international testing bans.

Energy Production:

• Advances in fusion research could contribute to clean, limitless, and sustainable energy.

Concerns for India:

• China’s fusion advancements could widen the gap between India and China in both nuclear capabilities and clean energy production.

Conclusion & Way Forward

• Nuclear fusion has the potential to meet global energy demands for millions of years, making it the future of sustainable energy.
• China’s recent breakthrough marks a major milestone in global fusion research.
• For India, this poses both a challenge and an opportunity, urging the country to accelerate its fusion research and build strategic partnerships to stay competitive in future energy technologies.

Context

• A study titled ‘Abrupt transformation of west Greenland lakes following compound climate extremes associated with atmospheric rivers’ revealed that more than 7,500 lakes in western Greenland have turned brown due to extreme weather events.

Major Findings

1. Transformation of Greenland’s Lakes

• Western Greenland is home to tens of thousands of blue lakes, which:
  Provide drinking water to residents.
  Sequester carbon from the atmosphere.
• In 2022, these lakes began:
  Emitting carbon dioxide (CO₂) instead of storing it.
  Experiencing a drop in water quality due to extreme weather events.
• Normally, such changes take place over centuries, but in this case, they happened within months.

2. Key Drivers of the Transformation

a) Warmer Temperatures & Rainfall Instead of Snow

• Greenland typically experiences snowfall from late August to late September.
• However, in 2022, due to warmer temperatures, the snow turned into rain.

b) Thawing Permafrost & Chemical Release

• Permafrost (frozen ground containing significant organic carbon) thawed, releasing:
  Carbon
  Iron, magnesium, and other elements
• Record levels of rainfall washed these elements into the lakes, leading to their discoloration.

c) Role of Atmospheric Rivers

• Atmospheric Rivers (ARs) played a crucial role in raising temperatures and increasing rainfall in 2022.

What is an Atmospheric River?

• Atmospheric rivers are long, narrow corridors in the atmosphere that transport large amounts of water vapor outside of the tropics.
• (Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration – NOAA)
• They are typically located within the low-level jet stream, ahead of a cold front in an extra-tropical cyclone.

Impact of Atmospheric Rivers

Essential for precipitation but can cause flooding and heat hazards.
Responsible for 70% of major floods in India (1985-2020), including:

• 2013 Uttarakhand floods
• 2018 Kerala floods

Impact of Greenland’s Lake Transformation

1. From Carbon Sinks to Carbon Emitters

• Western Greenland’s lakes, once carbon sinks, became significant carbon sources, with CO₂ emissions increasing by 350%.

2. Water Quality Decline

• The introduction of iron and organic matter led to a decline in water quality.

3. Disruption of Ecosystems

• Reduction in light penetration affected the biodiversity of plankton, impacting the regional carbon cycle.

Impact of Climate Change on Atmospheric Rivers

1. Increased Frequency

• Global warming could increase the frequency of Atmospheric Rivers (ARs) by 50-290% in regions like Greenland, North America, and East Asia by the end of the century.

2. South Asian Monsoon

• Warming will enhance moisture transport, leading to more ARs making landfall in India and intensifying the South Asian Monsoon.

3. Indian Ocean Warming

• Warmer sea temperatures and an increase in Vapour Pressure Deficit (VPD) will raise evaporation, promoting the formation of Atmospheric Rivers.

4. Poleward Shift

• Atmospheric Rivers are shifting 6-10 degrees toward the poles due to changes in sea surface temperatures.

5. La Niña Impact

• La Niña strengthens Walker circulation, expanding the tropical rainfall belt and steering Atmospheric Rivers poleward

Context:

• India has recently sent humanitarian assistance to support residents of the Kurdistan region in Iraq.

About the Kurdistan Region:

·         Geography:
The Kurdistan region is a mountainous area spanning parts of eastern Turkey, northern Iraq, western Iran, and smaller areas in northern Syria and Armenia.

·         Inhabitants:
The region is predominantly inhabited by the Kurds, an ethnic group that is the fourth-largest in the Middle East, yet they do not have their own nation-state.

·         Historical Context:

• • Post World War I: Under the Treaty of Sèvres, Western powers promised the Kurds their own homeland.
  • However, this hope was dashed with the Treaty of Lausanne in 1924, which divided the Kurds among the newly formed nations of the Middle East.

• The Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change has approved the proposal to rebuild the Teesta-III dam located on the main Teesta River, despite concerns over the design and stability of the project.

About Teesta River:

·         Origin: The Teesta River originates from Tso Lhamo Lake in North Sikkim.

·         Course and Flow:

• • The river flows south through the Siwalik Hills, southeast via the Sivok Khola pass, into West Bengal.
  • It is a major right-bank tributary of the Brahmaputra River.
  • The River Rangit is a tributary of the Teesta.

·         Draining and Course Change:

• • Originally, the Teesta drained directly into the upper Padma River (also known as the Ganga).
  • However, around 1787, the river changed its course to flow eastward in Bangladesh, eventually joining the Jamuna River

Context: US President Orders Setting Up of Migrant Detention Center in Guantánamo Bay

About Guantánamo Bay:

·         Location:
Guantánamo Bay forms an inlet of the Caribbean Sea, indenting the southeastern part of Cuba.

·         Features:

• • The bay is large, well-sheltered, and has a narrow entrance to a harbor.
  • It is capable of accommodating large vessels.

·         Ports:

• • The ports of Caimanera and Boquerón are linked to the city of Guantánamo.

·         Naval Station Guantanamo Bay (NSGB):

• • Established in 1903, the NSGB is the oldest overseas military installation of the United States.

·         Jurisdiction:
According to the United States’ lease with Cuba, the U.S. retains jurisdiction over the naval base, while Cuba maintains sovereignty.

Capital: Muscat

Context: Recently, India and Oman have agreed to amend the Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement (DTAA) to promote greater cooperation on taxation.

Political Features

• Oman occupies the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula at the confluence of the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea.
• It is bounded by Yemen (Southwest), the Arabian Sea (South and East), the Gulf of Oman (North), the United Arab Emirates (Northwest), and Saudi Arabia (West).

Geographical Features

• Climate: Hot and humid along the coast; hot and dry interior; with a strong southwest summer monsoon (May to September) in the far south.
• Coastal Plain: The long, narrow coastal plain known as Al-Bāţinah stretches along the Gulf of Oman.
• Desert: The Rubʿ al-Khālī desert is shared with Saudi Arabia and Yemen.
• Highest Point: Mount Shams (“Sun Mountain”).

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